Bold-Erdene Baast1, Amartuvshin Sukhee2, Naranbaatar Byambajav1, Munkhbat Orolmaa3,Chinzorig Bayaraa2
1Department of Journalism and Mass Communication, National University of Mongolia, Mongolia
2Department of Journalism, Mongolian National University of Education, Mongolia
3Social Research Institute, National University of Mongolia.
All correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Amartuvshin Sukhee, Department of Journalism, Mongolian National University of Education, Mongolia, P.O. Box 187, 14191, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia.
E-mail: amartuvshin@msue.edu.mn
Bold-Erdene Baast: Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 22210646, Baga toiruu -47 +976-99166501 bolderdene@num.edu.mn
Amartuvshin Sukhee:Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 14191, Baga Toiruu -14, +976-88078377, amartuvshin@msue.edu.mn
Naranbaatar Byambajav: Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 22210646, Baga toiruu -47 +976-88818666, naranbaatar@num.edu.mn
Munkhbat Orolmaa: Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 22210646, Baga toiruu -47 +976-99093659 munkhbat@num.edu.mn
Chinzorig Bayaraa: Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, 14191, Baga Toiruu -14, +976-91199299, chinzorig@msue.edu.mn
Author Notes
Bold-Erdene Baast (Ph.D.) is a professor at the National University of Mongolia, Department of Press and Information. He studies mass media theory effect of mass media, plan and evaluate mass media, train and study of journalism and advertisement, and the effect of public relations.
Amartuvshin Sukhee (Ph.D.) is a professor at the Mongolian National University of Education, Department of Journalism. His main research interests are in mass media theory, the effect of mass media, planning and evaluation of mass media, training and study of journalism, skills of journalists, online journalism, and media literacy.
Naranbaatar Byambajav (Ph.D.) is a Head of Department of Journalism and Mass communication at the National University of Mongolia. His main research interests include management of Mass media, theory of mass communications and history of foreign journalism.
Munkhbat Orolmaa (Ph.D.) is a tenured professor and director of the Social Research Institute, at the National University of Mongolia. His research area focuses on sociological theory, corruption study, social stratification, and policy analysis.
Chinzorig Bayaraa (Ph.D.) is a lecturer at the Mongolian National University of Education, Department of Journalism. His research area planning and evaluation of mass media, training and study of journalism, online journalism.
Funding
No funding
Acknowledgements
The authors are deeply grateful to reviewers for comments and suggestions.
Abstract
In the article, the authors analyze data on neighboring countries that were published in Mongolian international journalism. Through the lens of media sociology, the authors explore Mongolian perceptions of their neighboring countries and people, utilizing data from a sociology study titled “The Mongolian public opinion towards neighboring countries”. The study was a collaborative effort between Social research institute, School of Science and Arts and School of international relations and public administration, National University of Mongolia. The study was conducted from September to December 2019. Empirical data was collected for the study using research methods such as questionnaires, focus groups interviews, literature reviews, and case studies.
The article investigates Mongolian public opinion regarding their historical and current relationships with Russia and China, as well as their contemporary economic and cultural ties.
Although Mongolians generally hold a positive view towards the However, Mongolians’ stereotypes about the two neighboring countries suggest that the Russians are more positive when the Chinese are skeptical and ignorant of their personalities.
Therefore, international journalism in the Mongolian media sector needs a policy and strategy to disseminate relevant information about the two neighboring countries.
Keywords: international journalism, public opinion, neighboring countries, sociology of media, appreciation, stereotype
INTRODUCTION
At the First Congress of Sociologists in 1910, M. Weber, classic representative of sociology, (Weber, 1976, pp. 96–101) stressed the vital role of media in shaping society and urged the establishment of mass media sociology. Today, the media’s impact on society and life is constantly expanding, and is often referred to as the “fourth governance”, playing a role in policy-making, decision-making and shaping public opinion (Bold-Erdene, 2017, p. 56).
In fact, that media sociology studies the effects of social media on society, and utilizes social exchange theory and network theory to analyze the ways in humans interact and relate to one another (Munkhbat, 2008, p. 42).
As a theoretical foundation for our research, we rely on the “Social Fact Paradigm”, which is one of the core sociological paradigms, as outline by Munkhbat (Munkhbat, 2008, p. 53). Our aim to uncover Mongolian’s perceptions and expectations regarding their neighboring countries.
When conducting survey and writing the article, we consider as important the theory (Lasswell, 1948) and the practical approach (Lippman, 1920) of some researchers who focuses methodical in journalistic information, facts and opinions.
We consider the concept of stereotypes (Neil Macrae. C., 1996), its implications for international journalism, including both positive and negative effects (McQuaiL D. , 1987). The concept of stereotypes is considered as an important communication concept in international journalism studies.
In this regard, researchers argue especially that “the effectiveness of communication depends on the value of the individual’s attitude towards information” (D e i w i s on, 1977), “the layer or system of personal values is the most important independent determinant of effectiveness” (B o w l i n g, 1960).
Also, the article has based on the theory of “two-phase flow” proposed by Lazarsfeld and Katz (L a z a r s f e l d P. F., 1955).
There is a study that studies Mongolian people’s understanding of two neighbors.
This is how Borjgin Shurentana studied this. Mutual perception is an important indicator of the degree of closeness between countries, and it can more intuitively reflect the degree of mutual favorability between the two peoples and the perception of each other’s national image. Mongolia’s perception of China is an important fundamental aspect in the bilateral relations (Borjgin, 2021).
Contrary to Russians, Chinese people are pictured in these stories as some kind of parasites, who constantly take from Mongolian land and never give anything in return (Delaplace G. , 2012). And his studded that Chinese people are imagined as essentially parasitic beings, who not only come to Mongolia to trade but stick to the place, even beyond their own death, to suck out its vital resources (Delaplace G. , 2010)
The perception of neighboring countries is greatly influenced by the perception of the international journalistic imagination. This is a “stereotype”.
According to the theory of public relations, journalists and publishers use certain stereotypes when writing about a foreign country. Therefore, an independent theory called “Theory of stereotype” has been developed among the theories of public relations that study the content of information (Sukhee, 2024).
Stereotype is defined as the “imaginary image” of an individual as he or she looks at things and phenomena in society (Neil Macrae. C., 1996). In the realm of public relations, perceptions and stereotypes about the world, a particular country, or its people that are deeply ingrained in people’s minds are often referred to as “imaginations”. According to researcher Tajfel Forgas, perception retains its meaning when it is associated with a group of people who are culturally integrated
Of course, the media is the most influential tool for imagining. That is why the media cannot ignore the notion that a particular nation is a carrier of information (Lippmann, 1922) in order to make people of another nation understand it.
However, McQuail’s conclusion that “with the advent of literacy, human beings have become obsessed with extremes as they listen to imagery and receive imaginations” (McQuaiL D. , 1987) cannot be ignored.
On the other hand, the information disseminated by the media represents only the tip of the iceberg when it comes to events, and there are limited opportunities to fully convey the nature and causes of the problem. Furthermore, the public has limited control over the information presented by the media. Moreover, Lipman called people’s perceptions of reality created by the media as “public illusions” and called them stereotypes.
Globalization has changed the world from one of isolated nations to a more connected and interdependent community via the spread of products, jobs, technology, people, information, ideas, and culture across national boundaries. Through word-of-mouth communication, advertising, media coverage, and even national propaganda, they get to know about countries they may never set foot in and groups of people that they may never encounter personally. All of these connections help individuals to build cognitions and feelings about other countries (Lemeng Liang, 2022).
This article explores how information about neighboring countries is reflected in Mongolian journalism, is based on the results of the survey “Mongolian Opinions on Neighboring Countries”.
Research theory and methodology, sample survey:
We use, the “Social fact’s paradigm” (Munkhbat, 2008), one of the basic sociological paradigms, as a theoretical framework in our research to identify Mongolian stereotypes and expectations about neighboring countries.
Based on the concept of regional development of Mongolia, we determined the sample set and 1382 people from Bayan-Ulgii, Darkhan-Uul, Dornod, Dundgovi, Uvurkhangai, Tuv, Uvs aimags, and Ulaanbaatar were included in the survey using step-by-step and random sampling:
Of the total respondents, 41 percent were men and 59 percent were women. Moreover, young people aged 20-34 accounted for 45.2 percent of the total respondents. Of the total respondents, 45.9 percent had higher education and 38.2 percent had secondary education. See Figure 1.
Figure 1: Educational status
Also, you can see the case respondents’ employment status in the next figure. See figure 2.
Figure 2: Employment status. Note: In August-September 2019, the "Mongolians' Opinions About Neighboring Countries" study was jointly implemented by the Institute of Social Research of the University of Mongolia, the School of Social Sciences of the School of Science, and the School of International Relations and Social Sciences. The primary data of the study was collected with the help of 1. Quantitative research: Questionnaire, 2. Qualitative research: Group interview. Based on the concept of regional development of Mongolia, Bayan-Olgii, Darkhan Uul, Dornod, Dundgov, Uverkhangai, Central, Uvs provinces and Ulaanbaatar city were selected in the form of a hierarchical sample, and data was collected from a total of 1382 people using random sampling.
According to our survey1, Mongolian public opinion about the development, economic growth and partnership with neighboring countries Russia and China was positive (68.7-90.8 percent), which is influenced by the media and will form the basis atmosphere future relations. If essence of this positive attitude is considered, the most significant factors influencing public opinion, in addition to the media, are real-life events, facts that may change depending on the period of the time, situation and sequences of social problems.
In other words, the real space of communication exists where there is a high demand for and impact of information about economic, financial, and business cooperation. However, while Mongolians have a positive attitude towards Russia, it is more of a confidential nature. On the other hand, there is a higher demand for information regarding economic development and business trade in relation to China.
Modern international relationships, globalization, civilizational disagreements, and economic integration have caused journalism to become more responsible, balanced, and provide non-ideological information.
According to Harold Lasswell, the definition of real truth is based on facts first and values second. (Lasswell, 1948). Lippman (1920), a leading American researcher, also noted that journalists should respect reality and limit their opinions to reporting events.
The value of real information in international events and real life should be free from ideology, emotion, inference, exaggeration. It must be based on real facts, effects, and cause.
For this reason, there is a need to be more realistic, expectant, and pragmatic attitude for choosing facts, events and interpreting about neighboring countries.
Therefore, the priority areas of Mongolian international journalism can be categorized as follows: Firstly, the issues related to our southern and northern neighbors, secondly, the issues related to countries with significant economic influence and support, and thirdly, the issues related to the global community.
There is no other nation in the world that has a unique geopolitical destiny of being located between two world powers.
Therefore, it is crucial to evaluate the efficiency of both countries in terms of world economics, development and changes in international events. This requires careful selection and interpretation of information, while considering the national interest.
On the other side, efficiency of international journalism information is determined by the main criteria: first, national interests, second, economic and political influence, and third, geographical relevance. In terms of the value of our international information, national interests are a priority. As a social conscience, national interests are a complex expression of public opinion that changes over specific issues, countries, and events.
On the other hand, most Mongolians hold neutral opinions about their neighbors, with 58.8 percent having average views of Russia and 49.7 percent having average views of China. Additionally, 41.7 percent of respondents did not have a clear opinion about China and 47.4 percent did not have a clear opinion about the Chinese people. However, 78.7 percent of the respondents reported using Chinese-made clothing, 70.1 percent reported using household goods, and 68.2 percent reported suing Chinese electrical appliances. Increasing the impact of informational about China and fostering effective relationships can be achieved by expanding people’s knowledge and understanding through innovative and intelligent means. This can be achieved by presenting information in a way that stimulates people’s imagination and intelligence, and by providing new perspectives on events and facts that align with their opinions.
An example of this could be the fact that China’s industrial technological development has surpassed that of Germany, and that their products have a global reach and influence.
70.2 percent of respondents said they were interested Russian culture and their life, 75.6 percent said they had positive expectations about Mongolian cooperation, and 65.4 percent said they were interested in doing business with citizens of the two countries. In other words, there is a possibility of influencing public perception of Russian social and business cooperation by actively promoting and highlighting positive aspects of such cooperation. Thus, if the information in someone’s mind be in needs clarification or if there are unclear or disputed intentions, effective relationships can be created by providing new perspectives, reducing ambiguity, and making an impact.
In general, our research shows that the information about Russia is more interesting and important for Mongolians. Therefore, the information about Russia is since a person better understands the information that supporting his image, views, belief and values.